MASTERS 2 - Galileo Galilei

Galileo Galilei was born on February 15, 1564 in Pisa, Italy. Galileo pioneered "experimental scientific method," and was the first to use a refracting telescope to make important astronomical discoveries.

In 1604 Galileo learned of the invention of the telescope in Holland. From the barest description he constructed a vastly superior model. With it he made a series of profound discoveries, including the moons of planet Jupiter and the phases of the planet Venus (similar to those of Earth's moon).

As a professor of astronomy at University of Pisa, Galileo was required to teach the accepted theory of his time that the sun and all the planets revolved around the Earth. Later at University of Padua he was exposed to a new theory, proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus, that the Earth and all the other planets revolved around the sun. Galileo's observations with his new telescope convinced him of the truth of Copernicus's sun-centered or heliocentric theory

Galileo's support for the heliocentric theory got him into trouble with the Roman Catholic Church. In 1633 the Inquisition convicted him of heresy and forced him to recant (publicly withdraw) his support of Copernicus. They sentenced him to life imprisonment, but because of his advanced age allowed him serve his term under house arrest at his villa outside of Florence, Italy.

Galileo's originality as a scientist lay in his method of inquiry. First he reduced problems to a simple set of terms on the basis of everyday experience and common-sense logic. Then he analyzed and resolved them according to simple mathematical descriptions. The success with which he applied this technique to the analysis of motion opened the way for modern mathematical and experimental physics. Isaac Newton used one of Galileo's mathematical descriptions, "The Law of Inertia," as the foundation for his "First Law of Motion." Galileo died in 1642, the year of Newton's birth.

Isaac Newton

Isaac Newton was born on December 25, 1642 in Woolsthorpe, England, the same year Galileo died. Newton is clearly the most influential scientist who ever lived. His accomplishments in mathematics, optics, and physics laid the foundations for modern science and revolutionized the world.

As mathematician, Newton invented integral calculus, and jointly with Leibnitz, differential calculus. He also calculated a formula for finding the velocity of sound in a gas which was later corrected by Laplace.

Newton made a huge impact on theoretical astronomy. He defined the laws of motion and universal gravitation which he used to predict precisely the motions of stars, and the planets around the sun. Using his discoveries in optics Newton constructed the first reflecting telescope.

Newton found science a hodgepodge of isolated facts and laws, capable of describing some phenomena, and predicting only a few. He left it with a unified system of laws, that could be applied to an enormous range of physical phenomena, and used to make exact predications. Newton published his works in two books, namely "Opticks" and "Principia."

Newton died in 1727 and was buried in Westminster Abbey, the first scientist to be accorded this honor. A review of an encyclopedia of science will reveal at least two to three times more references to Newton than any other individual scientist. A 18th century poem written about Sir Isaac Newton states it best:

"Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night: God said, Let Newton be! and all was light." - Alexander Pope.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Jean-Jacques Rousseau was born on June 28, 1712 in Geneva, Switzerland. His mother died shortly after his birth. When Rousseau was 10 his father fled from Geneva to avoid imprisonment for a minor offense, leaving young Jean-Jacques to be raised by an aunt and uncle. Rousseau left Geneva at 16, wandering from place to place, finally moving to Paris in 1742. He earned his living during this period, working as everything from footman to assistant to an ambassador.

Rousseau's profound insight can be found in almost every trace of modern philosophy today. Somewhat complicated and ambiguous, Rousseau's general philosophy tried to grasp an emotional and passionate side of man which he felt was left out of most previous philosophical thinking.

In his early writing, Rousseau contended that man is essentially good, a "noble savage" when in the "state of nature" (the state of all the other animals, and the condition man was in before the creation of civilization and society), and that good people are made unhappy and corrupted by their experiences in society. He viewed society as "articficial" and "corrupt" and that the furthering of society results in the continuing unhappiness of man.

Rousseau's essay, "Discourse on the Arts and Sciences" (1762), argued that the advancement of art and science had not been beneficial to mankind. He proposed that the progress of knowledge had made governments more powerful, and crushed individual liberty. He concluded that material progress had actually undermined the possibility of sincere friendship, replacing it with jealousy, fear and suspicion.

Perhaps Rousseau's most important work is "The Social Contract" that describes the relationship of man with society. Contrary to his earlier work, Rousseau claimed that the state of nature is brutish condition without law or morality, and that there are good men only a result of society's presence. In the state of nature, man is prone to be in frequent competition with his fellow men. Because he can be more successful facing threats by joining with other men, he has the impetus to do so. He joins together with his fellow men to form the collective human presence known as "society.""The Social Contract" is the "compact" agreed to among men that sets the conditions for membership in society.

Rousseau was one of the first modern writers to seriously attack the institution of private property, and therefore is considered a forebear of modern socialism and Communism (see Karl Marx). Rousseau also questioned the assumption that the will of the majority is always correct. He argued that the goal of government should be to secure freedom, equality, and justice for all within the state, regardless of the will of the majority.

One of the primary principles of Rousseau's political philosophy is that politics and morality should not be separated. When a state fails to act in a moral fashion, it ceases to function in the proper manner and ceases to exert genuine authority over the individual. The second important principle is freedom, which the state is created to preserve.

Rousseau's ideas about education have profoundly influenced modern educational theory. He minimizes the importance of book learning, and recommends that a child's emotions should be educated before his reason. He placed a special emphasis on learning by experience.

Jonas Salk

Jonas (Edward) Salk was born on October 28, 1914 in New York City. He is best known for developing the first successful vaccine for polio. He also made significant contributions to our understanding of influenza and other infectious diseases.

Salk was the oldest son of a garment industry worker. He helped pay for his education by working after school, and by earning academic scholarships. Salk graduated from New York University School of Medicine in 1938. In 1942, he went to the University of Michigan on a research fellowship and soon advanced to the position of assistant professor of epidemiology (the study of the causes and control of epidemics).

in 1947 where he continued his research. In 1953 he announced the development of a trial vaccine for Polio (poliomyelitis). Mass trials held in 1953 on 1,830,000 children proved the vaccine was safe and effective. He received many honors, including a Congressional gold medal for his "great achievement in the field of medicine."

Salk established the Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla (pronounced "la hoya") California in 1963. He left his position at University of Pittsburgh in 1964 to dedicate full-time to his institute, and the study of infectious diseases. He was director of the Salk Institute until his death, June 23, 1995.

Lao Tzu

The specific date of birth of Lao Tzu is unknown. Legends vary, but scholars place his birth between 600 and 300 B.C.E. Lao Tzu is attributed with the writing of the "Tao-Te Ching," (tao-meaning the way of all life, te-meaning the fit use of life by men, and ching-meaning text or classic). Lao Tzu was not his real name, but an honorific given the sage, meaning "Old Master."

ao Tzu's wise council attracted followers, but he refused to set his ideas down in writing. He believed that written words might solidify into formal dogma. Lao Tzu wanted his philosophy to remain a natural way to live life with goodness, serenity and respect. Lao Tzu laid down no rigid code of behavior. He believed a person's conduct should be governed by instinct and conscience.

Lao Tzu believed that human life, like everything else in the universe, is constantly influenced by outside forces. He believed "simplicity" to be the key to truth and freedom. Lao Tzu encouraged his followers to observe, and seek to understand the laws of nature; to develop intuition and build up personal power; and to use that power to lead life with love, and without force.

Legend says that in the end Lao Tzu, saddened by the evil of men, set off into the desert on a water buffalo leaving civilization behind. When he arrived at the final gate at the great wall protecting the kingdom, the gatekeeper persuaded him to record the principles of his philosophy for posterity. The result was the eighty-one sayings of the "Tao-Te Ching." This ancient Chinese text is the world's most translated classic next to the Bible.

Louis Leakey

Louis S. B. Leakey was born in Kenya, Africa on August 7, 1903. His parents were British missionaries. Leakey was largely responsible for convincing scientists that Africa was the most significant area to search for evidence of human origins. Most anthropologists has sought such evidence in Asia because of the discovery of human fossils in Java (now part of Indonesia) and in China.

eakey began leading fossil-hunting expeditions to eastern Africa during the 1920's. He married Mary D. Nicol in 1936 and the couple discovered many important fossils together. These include the remains of ape-like animals that lived in what is now Kenya between 14 and 15 million years ago. During the early 1960's an expedition led by Louis Leakey found fossils at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania that he considered remains of an early human being. Leakey and other scientists named the species Homo Habilis and identified it as the earliest member of the genus of human beings.

eakey was buried in the country of his birth on October 4, 1972. In the course of his life he had won the highest honors -- in 1953 a Doctor of Science degree from Oxford, in 1963 a Doctor of Laws from Berkley, in 1966 he was made an Honorary Fellow of the British Academy, and in 1969 a Doctor of Laws from the University of Gelph in Canada. Dr. Melvin Payne, president of the National Geographic Society, commemorated his passing with the following: "Louis Leakey brilliantly rewrote the history of man as his as his astonishing fossil discoveries in Africa revolutionized our concept of man's development."

Louis Pasteur

Louis Pasteur was born on December 27, 1822 in Dole, in the region of Jura, France. His discovery that most infectious diseases are caused by germs, known as the "germ theory of disease," is one of the most important in medical history. His work became the foundation for the science of microbiology, and a cornerstone of modern medicine.

asteur's phenomenal contributions to microbiology and medicine can be summarized as follows: First, he championed changes in hospital practices to minimize the spread of disease by microbes. Second, he discovered that weakened forms of a microbe could be used as an immunization against more virulent forms of the microbe. Third, Pasteur found that rabies was transmitted by agents so small they could not be seen under a microscope, thus revealing the world of viruses. As a result he developed techniques to vaccinate dogs against rabies, and to treat humans bitten by rabid dogs. And fourth, Pasteur developed "pasteurization," a process by which harmful microbes in perishable food products are destroyed using heat, without destroying the food.

asteur posessed several characteristics rarely found in one individual. He was committed to thorough scientific research, and worked with incredible intensity. He was highly intuitive, and a master technician. Most of his work was done in isolation, but he had a talent for public debate. Although Pasteur derived problems from specific industrial or medical questions, he never failed to take into consideration the larger theoretical implications. While he worshiped science, Pasteur maintained that there were spiritual values that trancended it.

Machiaveli

Niccolo Machiavelli was born on May 3, 1469 in Florence, Italy. He was a political philosopher and diplomat during the Renaissance, and best known for his famous work, "The Prince" (1513).

In "The Prince," Machiavelli offered a monarchical ruler advice designed to keep that ruler in power. He recommended policies that would discourage mass political activism, and channel subjects' energies into private pursuits. Machiavelli wanted to persuade the monarch that he could best preserve his power by the judicious use of violence, by respecting private property and the traditions of his subjects, and by promoting material prosperity. Machiavelli held that political life cannot be governed by a single set of moral or religious absolutes, and that the monarch may sometimes be excused for performing acts of violence and deception that would be ethically indefensible in private life.

During the Renaissance Italy was a scene of intense political conflict involving the dominant city-states of Florence, Milan, Venice, and Naples, plus the Papacy, France, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire. Each city attempted to protect itself by playing the larger powers off against each other. The result was massive political intrigue, blackmail, and violence. "The Prince" was written against this backdrop, and in its conclusion Machiavelli issued an impassioned call for Italian unity, and an end to foreign intervention.

Machiavelli's other major work, "Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livius" (1513-21), was mainly concerned with "republics," defined as states controlled by a politically active citizenry. In "Discourses" he emphasized that for a republic to survive, it needed to foster a spirit of patriotism and civic virtue among its citizens. Machiavelli argued that a republic would be strengthened by the conflicts generated through open political participation and debate.

Partly because Machiavelli's pragmatic view of the relationship between ethics and politics, he has been widely misinterpreted. The adjective "Machiavellian" has become a pejorative used to describe a politician who manipulates others in an opportunistic and deceptive way.

Ludwig Wittgenstein

'Nothing is so difficult as not deceiving yourself.'

Ludwig Wittgenstein was born on 26 April 1889, the eighth and youngest child of one of the wealthiest families in Hapsburg Vienna. The father's immense wealth as a leading figure in the iron and steel industry, known as "The Carnegie of Austria", enabled the family to live in the style of the aristocracy. Their home in Vienna was known as the Palais Wittgenstein. In addition, they had a house on the Outskirts of Vienna and a large estate in the country.

he Wittgensteins were at the centre of the cultural life of fin de siecle Vienna. It was the birthplace of psychoanalysis (Sigmund Freud), of atonal music (Arnold Schoenberg), modern functional architecture (Adolf Loos) and the birthplace of Zionism (Theodor Herzl). But it was also the birthplace of Nazism (Adolf Hitler). Three out of Ludwig's four brothers were to commit suicide.

He was brought up in a house of music. There were seven grand pianos in his childhood home. The composers Brahms and Mahler were frequent visitors to the musical evenings, and young Pablo Casals played there. There were also works of art by Klimt, Schiele, Kokoschka and Rodin.

At the age of fourteen, he was sent to a rather unacademic school at Linz. Adolf Hitler, who was almost exactly the same age as Ludwig, was also there. When he was seventeen and a half, he went to study mechanical engineering in Berlin and in 1908 he moved to Manchester as a Research student in Engineering. During this time, he got involved in the study of the foundations of mathematics and this proved to be a fateful move that led him to philosophy.

He was soon writing a book on the foundations of logic and mathematics. He showed it to Gottlob Frege (1848-1925) the great German philosopher-mathematician who suggested Wittgenstein go to Cambridge to study with Bertrand Russell.

So Wittgenstein went to Trinity College, Cambridge, to study under Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) who was a lecturer in mathematical logic. This was to lead to a passionate intellectual friendship between these two great philosophers in which both were transformed.

For Russell, Wittgenstein 'was perhaps the most perfect example I have ever known of genius as traditionally conceived, passionate, profound, intense and domineering'. He would visit Russell at midnight, pace up and down like a wild beast for hours in agitated silence, wrestling with problems of logic and with his sins.

In 1913, Wittgenstein decided to live for two years in Norway on his own to meditate and work on logic, without completing his degree.

Soon after the 1914-18 war broke out, Wittgenstein joined the Austrian army as a volunteer gunner and was sent to the Eastern Front. At the end of the war, the Italians made him and 300,000 Austrian troops prisoners, and 30,000 were to die in captivity of disease and starvation. By this point he has finished the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, the culmination of his thoughts on logic and ethics. Several publishers, including his own university press, Cambridge, rejected it. It at last got published but he was paid nothing for the rights of the book and wasn't entitled to royalties from its sales. It soon became a classic.

The Tractatus, a classic of 20th century philosophy, is a short book, about 70 pages, consisting of remarks on the essence of language, the nature of the world, of logic, mathematics, science and philosophy, and ending with comments on ethics, religion and mysticism. It is written with logical precision and often poetic intensity.

After the war, Wittgenstein found himself one of the wealthiest men in Austria due to his father's astuteness in putting the family's wealth in American bonds. But Ludwig gave it all to his brothers and sisters and trained as an elementary school teacher. He felt the Tractatus had solved all the problems of philosophy. Yet in 1926, he gave up teaching.

Slowly, he began to see the Tractatus as flawed and in 1929 he returned to Cambridge, becoming a fellow of Trinity College (the Tractatus was put forward for a Ph.D.).

In 1947, he resigned from his professorship at Cambridge because he wanted to write and because he felt his teaching did not have a good effect. So he went to live in Ireland, away from the "disintegrating and putrefying English civilization". Much of the time he lived in a little cottage on the west coast of Ireland at the mouth of the Killary harbour. There he wrote some of his most important work.

Soon after a trip to America in 1849, he became ill and returned to England, diagnosed as suffering from cancer of the prostrate. The last two years of his life were spent between Vienna, Oxford and Cambridge, staying with family and friends. He continued to significant work in philosophy until the day before he finally lost consciousness. He died at Cambridge in April in 1951.

There are some 20 titles of writings by Wittgenstein in English, but only the Tractatus and two short pieces were actually published with his approval. The majority are remarks extracted from his notebooks by various editors; some of his lectures and conversations are put together from the notes by his students, and some letters - all of course published after his death.

He constantly changed his text, reformulating his remarks, putting them in different contexts to their meaning. When he reached a conclusion he would often start all over again, re-exploring the topic from a different point of view. It was as if he wanted to keep everything in flux, to show work in progress rather than grand philosophical conclusions.

His best-known book is the Philosophical Investigations which was published two years after his death. The first two thirds of the remarks were chosen and put in order by him.

Maria Mitchell

Maria Mitchell was born August 1, 1818 on the island of Nantucket in Massachusetts. She became the first acknowledged woman astronomer in the United States. Not many girls born in the early 1800s were encouraged by their parents to aspire to high goals. Not many were lucky enough to have a father like William Mitchell, a dedicated astronomer and teacher himself. He was delighted with the early talent his daughter demonstrated for science. Instead of considering such interests useless for a girl, Maria's father did everything he could to further her knowledge of mathematics and astronomy. Maria's outstanding contributions to science, education and women's rights more than justified her father's enthusiastic efforts.

On a clear autumn night in 1847 Maria stood on the roof of her parent's house, focusing her telescope on a faraway star. Suddenly she realized that the faint, blurry light wasn't a star at all, but a comet. The discovery of a comet wasn't a rare event in the nineteenth century, but women astronomers were rare indeed.

In 1848, Maria became the first women member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and later became a fellow of the society. She served as professor of astronomy at Vassar College from 1865 to 1888, and also as president of the Association for the Advancement of Women. Throughout her career Maria encouraged young women in the same way her father had encouraged her, to be anything they wanted to be. Maria Mitchell died in 1889, and was elected to the Hall of Fame for Great Americans in 1905.